Re: [PATCH v2] c++: parser - Support for target address spaces in C++

[Paul Iannetta <piannetta@kalrayinc.com>]

On Thu, Oct 13, 2022 at 11:47:42AM -0400, Jason Merrill wrote:
> On 10/13/22 11:23, Paul Iannetta wrote:
> > On Thu, Oct 13, 2022 at 11:02:24AM -0400, Jason Merrill wrote:
> > > On 10/12/22 20:52, Paul Iannetta wrote:
> > > > On Tue, Oct 11, 2022 at 09:49:43PM -0400, Jason Merrill wrote:
> > > > > 
> > > > > It surprises that this is the only place we complain about an object with an
> > > > > address-space qualifier.  Shouldn't we also complain about e.g. automatic
> > > > > variables/parameters or non-static data members with address-space qualified
> > > > > type?
> > > > > 
> > > > 
> > > > Indeed, I was missing quite a few things here.  Thanks.
> > > > I used the draft as basis this time and imported from the C
> > > > implementation the relevant parts.  This time, the errors get properly
> > > > emitted when an address space is unduly specified; and comparisons,
> > > > assignments and comparisons are taken care of.
> > > > 
> > > > There are quite a few things I would like to clarify concerning some
> > > > implementation details.
> > > >     - A variable with automatic storage (which is neither a pointer nor
> > > >       a reference) cannot be qualified with an address space.  I detect
> > > >       this by the combination of `sc_none' and `! toplevel_bindings_p ()',
> > > >       but I've also seen the use of `at_function_scope' at other places.
> > > >       And I'm unsure which one is appropriate here.
> > > >       This detection happens at the very end of grokdeclarator because I
> > > >       need to know that the type is a pointer, which is not know until
> > > >       very late in the function.
> > > 
> > > At that point you have the decl, and you can ask directly what its storage
> > > duration is, perhaps using decl_storage_duration.
> > > 
> > > But why do you need to know whether the type is a pointer?  The attribute
> > > applies to the target type of the pointer, not the pointer type.  I think
> > > the problem is that you're looking at declspecs when you ought to be looking
> > > at type_quals.
> > 
> > I need to know that the base type is a pointer to reject invalid
> > declarations such as:
> > 
> >      int f (__seg_fs int a) { }     or     int f () { __seg_fs int a; }
> > 
> > because parameters and auto variables can have an address space
> > qualifier only if they are pointer or reference type, which I can't
> > tell only from type_quals.
> 
> But "int *__seg_fs a" is just as invalid as the above; the difference is not
> whether a is a pointer, but whether the address-space-qualified is the type
> of a itself or some sub-type.

I agree that "int * __seg_fs a" is invalid but it is accepted by the C
front-end, and by clang (both C and C++), the behavior is that the
address-name is silently ignored.

> You need to look at the qualifiers on type (which should also be the ones in
> type_quals), not the qualifiers in the declspecs.

I'll have another look, thanks.

> > > >     - I'm having some trouble deciding whether I include those three
> > > >       stub programs as tests, they all compile fine and clang accepts
> > > >       them as well.
> > > 
> > > Why not?
> > 
> > I thought they were pretty contrived, since it does not make much
> > sense to strip address space qualifiers, even though it does prove
> > that the implementation support those contrived but valid uses.
> 
> Testcases are full of contrived examples testing corner cases.  :)
> 
> > > 
> > > > Ex1:
> > > > ```
> > > > int __seg_fs * fs1;
> > > > int __seg_gs * gs1;
> > > > 
> > > > template<typename T> struct strip;
> > > > template<typename T> struct strip<__seg_fs T *> { typedef T type; };
> > > > template<typename T> struct strip<__seg_gs T *> { typedef T type; };
> > > > 
> > > > int
> > > > main ()
> > > > {
> > > >       *(strip<decltype(fs1)>::type *) fs1 == *(strip<decltype(gs1)>::type *) gs1;
> > > >       return 0;
> > > > }
> > > > ```
> > > > 
> > > > Ex2:
> > > > ```
> > > > int __seg_fs * fs1;
> > > > int __seg_fs * fs2;
> > > > 
> > > > template<typename T, typename U> auto f (T __seg_fs * a, U __seg_gs * b) { return a; }
> > > > template<typename T, typename U> auto f (T __seg_gs * a, U __seg_fs * b) { return a; }
> > > > 
> > > > int
> > > > main ()
> > > > {
> > > >       f (fs1, gs1);
> > > >       f (gs1, fs1);
> > > >       return 0;
> > > > }
> > > > ```
> > > > 
> > > > Ex3:
> > > > ```
> > > > int __seg_fs * fs1;
> > > > int __seg_gs * gs1;
> > > > 
> > > > template<typename T, typename U>
> > > > auto f (T __seg_fs * a, U __seg_gs * b)
> > > > {
> > > >       return *(T *) a == *(U *) b;
> > > > }
> > > > 
> > > > int
> > > > main ()
> > > > {
> > > >       return f (fs1, gs1);
> > > > }
> > > > ```
> > > > 
> > > > 
> > > > Add support for custom address spaces in C++
> > > > 
> > > > gcc/
> > > >           * tree.h (ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE): Missing parentheses.
> > > > 
> > > > gcc/c/
> > > >           * c-decl.cc: Remove c_register_addr_space.
> > > > 
> > > > gcc/c-family/
> > > >           * c-common.cc (c_register_addr_space): Imported from c-decl.cc
> > > >           (addr_space_superset): Imported from gcc/c/c-typecheck.cc
> > > >           * c-common.h: Remove the FIXME.
> > > >           (addr_space_superset): New declaration.
> > > > 
> > > > gcc/cp/
> > > >           * cp-tree.h (enum cp_decl_spec): Add addr_space support.
> > > >           (struct cp_decl_specifier_seq): Likewise.
> > > >           * decl.cc (get_type_quals): Likewise.
> > > >           (check_tag_decl): Likewise.
> > > > 	(grokdeclarator): Likewise.
> > > >           * parser.cc (cp_parser_type_specifier): Likewise.
> > > >           (cp_parser_cv_qualifier_seq_opt): Likewise.
> > > >           (cp_parser_postfix_expression): Likewise.
> > > >           (cp_parser_type_specifier): Likewise.
> > > >           (set_and_check_decl_spec_loc): Likewise.
> > > >           * typeck.cc (composite_pointer_type): Likewise
> > > >           (comp_ptr_ttypes_real): Likewise.
> > > > 	(same_type_ignoring_top_level_qualifiers_p): Likewise.
> > > >           * pt.cc (check_cv_quals_for_unify): Likewise.
> > > >           (unify): Likewise.
> > > >           * tree.cc: Remove c_register_addr_space stub.
> > > >           * mangle.cc (write_CV_qualifiers_for_type): Mangle address spaces
> > > >             using the extended qualifier notation.
> > > > 
> > > > gcc/doc
> > > >           * extend.texi (Named Address Spaces): add a mention about C++
> > > >             support.
> > > > 
> > > > gcc/testsuite/
> > > >           * g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space1.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space2.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/parse/addr-space.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/parse/addr-space1.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/parse/addr-space2.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/parse/template/spec-addr-space.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/ext/addr-space-decl.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ref.C: New test.
> > > >           * g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ops.C: New test.
> > > > 
> > > > # Please enter the commit message for your changes. Lines starting
> > > > # with '#' will be ignored, and an empty message aborts the commit.
> > > > #
> > > > # Date:      Sun Oct 9 16:02:22 2022 +0200
> > > > #
> > > > # On branch releases/gcc-12
> > > > # Your branch is ahead of 'origin/releases/gcc-12' by 2 commits.
> > > > #   (use "git push" to publish your local commits)
> > > > #
> > > > # Changes to be committed:
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/c-family/c-common.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/c-family/c-common.h
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/c/c-decl.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/c/c-typeck.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/cp-tree.h
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/decl.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/mangle.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/parser.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/pt.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/tree.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/cp/typeck.cc
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/doc/extend.texi
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space1.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space2.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-decl.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ops.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ref.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space1.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space2.C
> > > > #	new file:   gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/template/spec-addr-space.C
> > > > #	modified:   gcc/tree.h
> > > > #
> > > > # Untracked files:
> > > > #	Makefile
> > > > #	addr-space-decl.C
> > > > #	addr-space-decl.s
> > > > #	addr-space-ops.C
> > > > #	addr-space-ref.C
> > > > #	addr-space-template.C
> > > > #	addr-space-template.s
> > > > #	addr-space-template2.C
> > > > #	addr-space-template2.C.006t.gimple
> > > > #	addr-space-template2.s
> > > > #	addr-space-traits.C
> > > > #	addr-space4.C
> > > > #	addr-space4.C.006t.gimple
> > > > #	addr-space4.s
> > > > #	build-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/
> > > > #	compare
> > > > #	host-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/
> > > > #	mangle-addr-space1.s
> > > > #	prev-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/
> > > > #	rename
> > > > #	stage1-x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/
> > > > #	stage_current
> > > > #	stage_final
> > > > #	stage_last
> > > > #	x86_64-pc-linux-gnu/
> > > > #
> > > > # ------------------------ >8 ------------------------
> > > > # Do not modify or remove the line above.
> > > > # Everything below it will be ignored.
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/c-family/c-common.cc b/gcc/c-family/c-common.cc
> > > > index bb0544eeaea..ff1146ecc25 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/c-family/c-common.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/c-family/c-common.cc
> > > > @@ -615,6 +615,33 @@ c_addr_space_name (addr_space_t as)
> > > >      return IDENTIFIER_POINTER (ridpointers [rid]);
> > > >    }
> > > > +/* Return true if between two named address spaces, whether there is a superset
> > > > +   named address space that encompasses both address spaces.  If there is a
> > > > +   superset, return which address space is the superset.  */
> > > > +
> > > > +bool
> > > > +addr_space_superset (addr_space_t as1, addr_space_t as2,
> > > > +		     addr_space_t * common)
> > > > +{
> > > > +  if (as1 == as2)
> > > > +    {
> > > > +      *common = as1;
> > > > +      return true;
> > > > +    }
> > > > +  else if (targetm.addr_space.subset_p (as1, as2))
> > > > +    {
> > > > +      *common = as2;
> > > > +      return true;
> > > > +    }
> > > > +  else if (targetm.addr_space.subset_p (as2, as1))
> > > > +    {
> > > > +      *common = as1;
> > > > +      return true;
> > > > +    }
> > > > +  else
> > > > +    return false;
> > > > +}
> > > > +
> > > >    /* Push current bindings for the function name VAR_DECLS.  */
> > > >    void
> > > > @@ -2809,6 +2836,25 @@ c_build_bitfield_integer_type (unsigned HOST_WIDE_INT width, int unsignedp)
> > > >      return build_nonstandard_integer_type (width, unsignedp);
> > > >    }
> > > > +/* Register reserved keyword WORD as qualifier for address space AS.  */
> > > > +
> > > > +void
> > > > +c_register_addr_space (const char *word, addr_space_t as)
> > > > +{
> > > > +  int rid = RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE + as;
> > > > +  tree id;
> > > > +
> > > > +  /* Address space qualifiers are only supported
> > > > +     in C with GNU extensions enabled.  */
> > > > +  if (c_dialect_objc () || flag_no_asm)
> > > > +    return;
> > > > +
> > > > +  id = get_identifier (word);
> > > > +  C_SET_RID_CODE (id, rid);
> > > > +  TREE_LANG_FLAG_0 (id) = 1;
> > > > +  ridpointers[rid] = id;
> > > > +}
> > > > +
> > > >    /* The C version of the register_builtin_type langhook.  */
> > > >    void
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/c-family/c-common.h b/gcc/c-family/c-common.h
> > > > index 52a85bfb783..d36f9e4975b 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/c-family/c-common.h
> > > > +++ b/gcc/c-family/c-common.h
> > > > @@ -829,12 +829,11 @@ extern const struct attribute_spec c_common_format_attribute_table[];
> > > >    extern tree (*make_fname_decl) (location_t, tree, int);
> > > > -/* In c-decl.cc and cp/tree.cc.  FIXME.  */
> > > > -extern void c_register_addr_space (const char *str, addr_space_t as);
> > > > -
> > > >    /* In c-common.cc.  */
> > > >    extern bool in_late_binary_op;
> > > >    extern const char *c_addr_space_name (addr_space_t as);
> > > > +extern const char *c_addr_space_name (addr_space_t as);
> > > > +extern bool addr_space_superset (addr_space_t, addr_space_t, addr_space_t *);
> > > >    extern tree identifier_global_value (tree);
> > > >    extern tree identifier_global_tag (tree);
> > > >    extern bool names_builtin_p (const char *);
> > > > @@ -952,6 +951,7 @@ extern void c_common_finish (void);
> > > >    extern void c_common_parse_file (void);
> > > >    extern FILE *get_dump_info (int, dump_flags_t *);
> > > >    extern alias_set_type c_common_get_alias_set (tree);
> > > > +extern void c_register_addr_space (const char *, addr_space_t);
> > > >    extern void c_register_builtin_type (tree, const char*);
> > > >    extern bool c_promoting_integer_type_p (const_tree);
> > > >    extern bool self_promoting_args_p (const_tree);
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/c/c-decl.cc b/gcc/c/c-decl.cc
> > > > index c701f07befe..e1bb4f1cf37 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/c/c-decl.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/c/c-decl.cc
> > > > @@ -12337,25 +12337,6 @@ c_parse_final_cleanups (void)
> > > >      ext_block = NULL;
> > > >    }
> > > > -/* Register reserved keyword WORD as qualifier for address space AS.  */
> > > > -
> > > > -void
> > > > -c_register_addr_space (const char *word, addr_space_t as)
> > > > -{
> > > > -  int rid = RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE + as;
> > > > -  tree id;
> > > > -
> > > > -  /* Address space qualifiers are only supported
> > > > -     in C with GNU extensions enabled.  */
> > > > -  if (c_dialect_objc () || flag_no_asm)
> > > > -    return;
> > > > -
> > > > -  id = get_identifier (word);
> > > > -  C_SET_RID_CODE (id, rid);
> > > > -  C_IS_RESERVED_WORD (id) = 1;
> > > > -  ridpointers [rid] = id;
> > > > -}
> > > > -
> > > >    /* Return identifier to look up for omp declare reduction.  */
> > > >    tree
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/c/c-typeck.cc b/gcc/c/c-typeck.cc
> > > > index b271af9bedb..c4b01368534 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/c/c-typeck.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/c/c-typeck.cc
> > > > @@ -296,32 +296,6 @@ c_type_promotes_to (tree type)
> > > >      return type;
> > > >    }
> > > > -/* Return true if between two named address spaces, whether there is a superset
> > > > -   named address space that encompasses both address spaces.  If there is a
> > > > -   superset, return which address space is the superset.  */
> > > > -
> > > > -static bool
> > > > -addr_space_superset (addr_space_t as1, addr_space_t as2, addr_space_t *common)
> > > > -{
> > > > -  if (as1 == as2)
> > > > -    {
> > > > -      *common = as1;
> > > > -      return true;
> > > > -    }
> > > > -  else if (targetm.addr_space.subset_p (as1, as2))
> > > > -    {
> > > > -      *common = as2;
> > > > -      return true;
> > > > -    }
> > > > -  else if (targetm.addr_space.subset_p (as2, as1))
> > > > -    {
> > > > -      *common = as1;
> > > > -      return true;
> > > > -    }
> > > > -  else
> > > > -    return false;
> > > > -}
> > > > -
> > > >    /* Return a variant of TYPE which has all the type qualifiers of LIKE
> > > >       as well as those of TYPE.  */
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/cp-tree.h b/gcc/cp/cp-tree.h
> > > > index 72f4398a8f9..82a6d72f5df 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/cp-tree.h
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/cp-tree.h
> > > > @@ -6206,6 +6206,7 @@ enum cp_decl_spec {
> > > >      ds_const,
> > > >      ds_volatile,
> > > >      ds_restrict,
> > > > +  ds_addr_space,
> > > >      ds_inline,
> > > >      ds_virtual,
> > > >      ds_explicit,
> > > > @@ -6252,6 +6253,8 @@ struct cp_decl_specifier_seq {
> > > >      cp_storage_class storage_class;
> > > >      /* For the __intN declspec, this stores the index into the int_n_* arrays.  */
> > > >      int int_n_idx;
> > > > +  /* The address space that the declaration belongs to.  */
> > > > +  addr_space_t address_space;
> > > >      /* True iff TYPE_SPEC defines a class or enum.  */
> > > >      BOOL_BITFIELD type_definition_p : 1;
> > > >      /* True iff multiple types were (erroneously) specified for this
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/decl.cc b/gcc/cp/decl.cc
> > > > index 9f78c500a15..fa5a1ddb21d 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/decl.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/decl.cc
> > > > @@ -5280,6 +5280,8 @@ get_type_quals (const cp_decl_specifier_seq *declspecs)
> > > >        type_quals |= TYPE_QUAL_VOLATILE;
> > > >      if (decl_spec_seq_has_spec_p (declspecs, ds_restrict))
> > > >        type_quals |= TYPE_QUAL_RESTRICT;
> > > > +  if (decl_spec_seq_has_spec_p (declspecs, ds_addr_space))
> > > > +    type_quals |= ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (declspecs->address_space);
> > > >      return type_quals;
> > > >    }
> > > > @@ -5402,6 +5404,10 @@ check_tag_decl (cp_decl_specifier_seq *declspecs,
> > > >    	error_at (declspecs->locations[ds_restrict],
> > > >    		  "%<__restrict%> can only be specified for objects and "
> > > >    		  "functions");
> > > > +      else if (decl_spec_seq_has_spec_p (declspecs, ds_addr_space))
> > > > +	error_at (declspecs->locations[ds_addr_space],
> > > > +		  "address space can only be specified for objects and "
> > > > +		  "functions");
> > > >          else if (decl_spec_seq_has_spec_p (declspecs, ds_thread))
> > > >    	error_at (declspecs->locations[ds_thread],
> > > >    		  "%<__thread%> can only be specified for objects "
> > > > @@ -14572,6 +14578,57 @@ grokdeclarator (const cp_declarator *declarator,
> > > >        if (!processing_template_decl)
> > > >          cp_apply_type_quals_to_decl (type_quals, decl);
> > > > +    addr_space_t address_space = declspecs->address_space;
> > > > +    if (!ADDR_SPACE_GENERIC_P (address_space) && !INDIRECT_TYPE_P (type))
> > > > +      {
> > > > +	if (decl_context == NORMAL)
> > > > +	  {
> > > > +	    switch (storage_class)
> > > > +	      {
> > > > +	      case sc_auto:
> > > > +		error ("%qs combined with C++98 %<auto%> qualifier for %qs",
> > > > +		       c_addr_space_name (address_space), name);
> > > > +		break;
> > > > +	      case sc_register:
> > > > +		error ("%qs combined with %<register%> qualifier for %qs",
> > > > +		       c_addr_space_name (address_space), name);
> > > > +		break;
> > > > +	      case sc_none:
> > > > +		if (! toplevel_bindings_p ())
> > > > +		  error ("%qs specified for auto variable %qs",
> > > > +			 c_addr_space_name (address_space), name);
> > > > +		break;
> > > > +	      case sc_mutable:
> > > > +		error ("%qs combined with %<mutable%> qualifier for %qs",
> > > > +		       c_addr_space_name (address_space), name);
> > > > +		break;
> > > > +	      case sc_static:
> > > > +	      case sc_extern:
> > > > +		break;
> > > > +	      default:
> > > > +		gcc_unreachable ();
> > > > +	      }
> > > > +	  }
> > > > +	else if (decl_context == PARM && TREE_CODE (type) != ARRAY_TYPE)
> > > > +	  {
> > > > +	    if (name)
> > > > +	      error ("%qs specified for parameter %qs",
> > > > +		     c_addr_space_name (address_space), name);
> > > > +	    else
> > > > +	      error ("%qs specified for unnamed parameter",
> > > > +		     c_addr_space_name (address_space));
> > > > +	  }
> > > > +	else if (decl_context == FIELD)
> > > > +	  {
> > > > +	    if (name)
> > > > +	      error ("%qs specified for structure field %qs",
> > > > +		     c_addr_space_name (address_space), name);
> > > > +	    else
> > > > +	      error ("%qs specified for structure field",
> > > > +		     c_addr_space_name (address_space));
> > > > +	  }
> > > > +      }
> > > > +
> > > >        return decl;
> > > >      }
> > > >    }
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/mangle.cc b/gcc/cp/mangle.cc
> > > > index eb53e0ebeb4..16cb2ff4332 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/mangle.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/mangle.cc
> > > > @@ -2509,6 +2509,14 @@ write_CV_qualifiers_for_type (const tree type)
> > > >         array.  */
> > > >      cp_cv_quals quals = TYPE_QUALS (type);
> > > > +  if (addr_space_t as = DECODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (quals))
> > > > +    {
> > > > +      const char *as_name = c_addr_space_name (as);
> > > > +      write_char ('U');
> > > > +      write_unsigned_number (strlen (as_name));
> > > > +      write_string (as_name);
> > > > +      ++num_qualifiers;
> > > > +    }
> > > >      if (quals & TYPE_QUAL_RESTRICT)
> > > >        {
> > > >          write_char ('r');
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/parser.cc b/gcc/cp/parser.cc
> > > > index 763df6f479b..f0169d83ab0 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/parser.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/parser.cc
> > > > @@ -7640,6 +7640,14 @@ cp_parser_postfix_expression (cp_parser *parser, bool address_p, bool cast_p,
> > > >    		    postfix_expression = error_mark_node;
> > > >    		    break;
> > > >    		  }
> > > > +		if (type != error_mark_node
> > > > +		    && !ADDR_SPACE_GENERIC_P (TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (type))
> > > > +		    && current_function_decl)
> > > > +		  {
> > > > +		    error
> > > > +		      ("compound literal qualified by address-space qualifier");
> > > > +		    type = error_mark_node;
> > > > +		  }
> > > >    		/* Form the representation of the compound-literal.  */
> > > >    		postfix_expression
> > > >    		  = finish_compound_literal (type, initializer,
> > > > @@ -19408,6 +19416,15 @@ cp_parser_type_specifier (cp_parser* parser,
> > > >          break;
> > > >        }
> > > > +
> > > > +  if (RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE <= keyword && keyword <= RID_LAST_ADDR_SPACE)
> > > > +    {
> > > > +      ds = ds_addr_space;
> > > > +      if (is_cv_qualifier)
> > > > +	*is_cv_qualifier = true;
> > > > +    }
> > > > +
> > > > +
> > > >      /* Handle simple keywords.  */
> > > >      if (ds != ds_last)
> > > >        {
> > > > @@ -23776,6 +23793,7 @@ cp_parser_ptr_operator (cp_parser* parser,
> > > >       GNU Extension:
> > > >       cv-qualifier:
> > > > +     address-space-qualifier
> > > >         __restrict__
> > > >       Returns a bitmask representing the cv-qualifiers.  */
> > > > @@ -23812,6 +23830,11 @@ cp_parser_cv_qualifier_seq_opt (cp_parser* parser)
> > > >    	  break;
> > > >    	}
> > > > +      if (RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE <= token->keyword &&
> > > > +	  token->keyword <= RID_LAST_ADDR_SPACE)
> > > > +	cv_qualifier =
> > > > +	  ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (token->keyword - RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE);
> > > > +
> > > >          if (!cv_qualifier)
> > > >    	break;
> > > > @@ -32705,6 +32728,8 @@ set_and_check_decl_spec_loc (cp_decl_specifier_seq *decl_specs,
> > > >          decl_specs->locations[ds] = location;
> > > >          if (ds == ds_thread)
> > > >    	decl_specs->gnu_thread_keyword_p = token_is__thread (token);
> > > > +      else if (ds == ds_addr_space)
> > > > +	decl_specs->address_space = token->keyword - RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE;
> > > >        }
> > > >      else
> > > >        {
> > > > @@ -32737,6 +32762,25 @@ set_and_check_decl_spec_loc (cp_decl_specifier_seq *decl_specs,
> > > >    	      error_at (&richloc, "duplicate %qD", token->u.value);
> > > >    	    }
> > > >    	}
> > > > +      else if (ds == ds_addr_space)
> > > > +	{
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as1 = decl_specs->address_space;
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as2 = token->keyword - RID_FIRST_ADDR_SPACE;
> > > > +
> > > > +	  gcc_rich_location richloc (location);
> > > > +	  richloc.add_fixit_remove ();
> > > > +	  if (!ADDR_SPACE_GENERIC_P (as1) && !ADDR_SPACE_GENERIC_P (as2)
> > > > +	      && as1 != as2)
> > > > +	    error_at (&richloc,
> > > > +		      "conflicting named address spaces (%s vs %s)",
> > > > +		      c_addr_space_name (as1), c_addr_space_name (as2));
> > > > +	  if (as1 == as2 && !ADDR_SPACE_GENERIC_P (as1))
> > > > +	    error_at (&richloc,
> > > > +		      "duplicate named address space %s",
> > > > +		      c_addr_space_name (as1));
> > > > +
> > > > +	  decl_specs->address_space = as2;
> > > > +	}
> > > >          else
> > > >    	{
> > > >    	  static const char *const decl_spec_names[] = {
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/pt.cc b/gcc/cp/pt.cc
> > > > index bef31416fb7..c9d1c01f4ce 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/pt.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/pt.cc
> > > > @@ -23655,8 +23655,19 @@ template_decl_level (tree decl)
> > > >    static int
> > > >    check_cv_quals_for_unify (int strict, tree arg, tree parm)
> > > >    {
> > > > -  int arg_quals = cp_type_quals (arg);
> > > > -  int parm_quals = cp_type_quals (parm);
> > > > +  int arg_quals = CLEAR_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (cp_type_quals (arg));
> > > > +  int parm_quals = CLEAR_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (cp_type_quals (parm));
> > > > +
> > > > +  /*  Try to unify ARG's address space into PARM's address space.
> > > > +      If PARM does not have any address space qualifiers (ie., as_parm is 0),
> > > > +      there are no constraints on address spaces for this type.  */
> > > > +  addr_space_t as_arg = DECODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (cp_type_quals (arg));
> > > > +  addr_space_t as_parm = DECODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (cp_type_quals (parm));
> > > > +  addr_space_t as_common;
> > > > +  addr_space_superset (as_arg, as_parm, &as_common);
> > > > +
> > > > +  if (!(as_parm == as_common || as_parm == 0))
> > > > +    return 0;
> > > >      if (TREE_CODE (parm) == TEMPLATE_TYPE_PARM
> > > >          && !(strict & UNIFY_ALLOW_OUTER_MORE_CV_QUAL))
> > > > @@ -24292,10 +24303,26 @@ unify (tree tparms, tree targs, tree parm, tree arg, int strict,
> > > >    					 arg, parm))
> > > >    	    return unify_cv_qual_mismatch (explain_p, parm, arg);
> > > > +	  int arg_cv_quals = cp_type_quals (arg);
> > > > +	  int parm_cv_quals = cp_type_quals (parm);
> > > > +
> > > > +	  /* If PARM does not contain any address space constraints it can
> > > > +	     fully match the address space of ARG.  However, if PARM contains an
> > > > +	     address space constraint, it becomes the upper bound.  That is,
> > > > +	     AS_ARG may be promoted to AS_PARM but not the converse.  If we
> > > > +	     ended up here, it means that `check_cv_quals_for_unify' succeeded
> > > > +	     and that either AS_PARM is 0 (ie., no constraints) or AS_COMMON ==
> > > > +	     AS_PARM.  */
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as_arg = DECODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (arg_cv_quals);
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as_parm = DECODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (parm_cv_quals);
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as_common = as_parm ? 0 : as_arg;
> > > > +
> > > >    	  /* Consider the case where ARG is `const volatile int' and
> > > >    	     PARM is `const T'.  Then, T should be `volatile int'.  */
> > > > -	  arg = cp_build_qualified_type_real
> > > > -	    (arg, cp_type_quals (arg) & ~cp_type_quals (parm), tf_none);
> > > > +	  int unified_cv =
> > > > +	    CLEAR_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (arg_cv_quals & ~parm_cv_quals)
> > > > +	    | ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (as_common);
> > > > +	  arg = cp_build_qualified_type_real (arg, unified_cv, tf_none);
> > > >    	  if (arg == error_mark_node)
> > > >    	    return unify_invalid (explain_p);
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/tree.cc b/gcc/cp/tree.cc
> > > > index 3b37567cbd7..5e14ac837fc 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/tree.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/tree.cc
> > > > @@ -6048,15 +6048,6 @@ cp_free_lang_data (tree t)
> > > >        DECL_CHAIN (t) = NULL_TREE;
> > > >    }
> > > > -/* Stub for c-common.  Please keep in sync with c-decl.cc.
> > > > -   FIXME: If address space support is target specific, then this
> > > > -   should be a C target hook.  But currently this is not possible,
> > > > -   because this function is called via REGISTER_TARGET_PRAGMAS.  */
> > > > -void
> > > > -c_register_addr_space (const char * /*word*/, addr_space_t /*as*/)
> > > > -{
> > > > -}
> > > > -
> > > >    /* Return the number of operands in T that we care about for things like
> > > >       mangling.  */
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/cp/typeck.cc b/gcc/cp/typeck.cc
> > > > index ceb80d9744f..7d810c6a12c 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/cp/typeck.cc
> > > > +++ b/gcc/cp/typeck.cc
> > > > @@ -656,10 +656,26 @@ composite_pointer_type (const op_location_t &location,
> > > >    	  else
> > > >    	    return error_mark_node;
> > > >            }
> > > > +      /* If possible merge the address space into the superset of the address
> > > > +	  spaces of t1 and t2, or raise an error. */
> > > > +      addr_space_t as_t1 = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (t1);
> > > > +      addr_space_t as_t2 = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (t2);
> > > > +      addr_space_t as_common;
> > > > +
> > > > +      /* If the two named address spaces are different, determine the common
> > > > +	 superset address space.  If there isn't one, raise an error.  */
> > > > +      if (!addr_space_superset (as_t1, as_t2, &as_common))
> > > > +	{
> > > > +	  as_common = as_t1;
> > > > +	  error_at (location,
> > > > +		    "%qT and %qT are in disjoint named address spaces",
> > > > +		    t1, t2);
> > > > +	}
> > > >          result_type
> > > >    	= cp_build_qualified_type (void_type_node,
> > > > -				   (cp_type_quals (TREE_TYPE (t1))
> > > > -				    | cp_type_quals (TREE_TYPE (t2))));
> > > > +				   (CLEAR_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (cp_type_quals (TREE_TYPE (t1)))
> > > > +				    | CLEAR_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (cp_type_quals (TREE_TYPE (t2)))
> > > > +				    | ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE (as_common)));
> > > >          result_type = build_pointer_type (result_type);
> > > >          /* Merge the attributes.  */
> > > >          attributes = (*targetm.merge_type_attributes) (t1, t2);
> > > > @@ -1579,7 +1595,9 @@ comptypes (tree t1, tree t2, int strict)
> > > >    }
> > > >    /* Returns nonzero iff TYPE1 and TYPE2 are the same type, ignoring
> > > > -   top-level qualifiers.  */
> > > > +   top-level qualifiers, except for named address spaces.  If the pointers point
> > > > +   to different named addresses spaces, then we must determine if one address
> > > > +   space is a subset of the other.  */
> > > >    bool
> > > >    same_type_ignoring_top_level_qualifiers_p (tree type1, tree type2)
> > > > @@ -1589,6 +1607,14 @@ same_type_ignoring_top_level_qualifiers_p (tree type1, tree type2)
> > > >      if (type1 == type2)
> > > >        return true;
> > > > +  addr_space_t as_type1 = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (type1);
> > > > +  addr_space_t as_type2 = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (type2);
> > > > +  addr_space_t as_common;
> > > > +
> > > > +  /* Fail if pointers point to incompatible address spaces.  */
> > > > +  if (!addr_space_superset (as_type1, as_type2, &as_common))
> > > > +    return false;
> > > > +
> > > >      type1 = cp_build_qualified_type (type1, TYPE_UNQUALIFIED);
> > > >      type2 = cp_build_qualified_type (type2, TYPE_UNQUALIFIED);
> > > >      return same_type_p (type1, type2);
> > > > @@ -6374,10 +6400,32 @@ static tree
> > > >    pointer_diff (location_t loc, tree op0, tree op1, tree ptrtype,
> > > >    	      tsubst_flags_t complain, tree *instrument_expr)
> > > >    {
> > > > -  tree result, inttype;
> > > >      tree restype = ptrdiff_type_node;
> > > > +  tree result, inttype;
> > > > +
> > > > +  addr_space_t as0 = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (TREE_TYPE (TREE_TYPE (op0)));
> > > > +  addr_space_t as1 = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (TREE_TYPE (TREE_TYPE (op1)));
> > > >      tree target_type = TREE_TYPE (ptrtype);
> > > > +  /* If the operands point into different address spaces, we need to
> > > > +     explicitly convert them to pointers into the common address space
> > > > +     before we can subtract the numerical address values.  */
> > > > +  if (as0 != as1)
> > > > +    {
> > > > +      addr_space_t as_common;
> > > > +      tree common_type;
> > > > +
> > > > +      /* Determine the common superset address space.  This is guaranteed
> > > > +	 to exist because the caller verified that comp_target_types
> > > > +	 returned non-zero.  */
> > > > +      if (!addr_space_superset (as0, as1, &as_common))
> > > > +	gcc_unreachable ();
> > > > +
> > > > +      common_type = common_pointer_type (TREE_TYPE (op0), TREE_TYPE (op1));
> > > > +      op0 = convert (common_type, op0);
> > > > +      op1 = convert (common_type, op1);
> > > > +    }
> > > > +
> > > >      if (!complete_type_or_maybe_complain (target_type, NULL_TREE, complain))
> > > >        return error_mark_node;
> > > > @@ -10805,6 +10853,19 @@ comp_ptr_ttypes_real (tree to, tree from, int constp)
> > > >    	      to_more_cv_qualified = true;
> > > >    	    }
> > > > +      /* Warn about conversions between pointers to disjoint
> > > > +	 address spaces.  */
> > > > +      if (TREE_CODE (from) == POINTER_TYPE
> > > > +	  && TREE_CODE (to) == POINTER_TYPE)
> > > > +	{
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as_from = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (TREE_TYPE (from));
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as_to = TYPE_ADDR_SPACE (TREE_TYPE (to));
> > > > +	  addr_space_t as_common;
> > > > +
> > > > +	  if (!addr_space_superset (as_to, as_from, &as_common))
> > > > +	    return false;
> > > > +	}
> > > > +
> > > >    	  if (constp > 0)
> > > >    	    constp &= TYPE_READONLY (to);
> > > >    	}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/doc/extend.texi b/gcc/doc/extend.texi
> > > > index ac3db88566d..1e0d436c02c 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/doc/extend.texi
> > > > +++ b/gcc/doc/extend.texi
> > > > @@ -1448,7 +1448,7 @@ Fixed-point types are supported by the DWARF debug information format.
> > > >    @section Named Address Spaces
> > > >    @cindex Named Address Spaces
> > > > -As an extension, GNU C supports named address spaces as
> > > > +As an extension, GNU C and GNU C++ support named address spaces as
> > > >    defined in the N1275 draft of ISO/IEC DTR 18037.  Support for named
> > > >    address spaces in GCC will evolve as the draft technical report
> > > >    changes.  Calling conventions for any target might also change.  At
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space1.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space1.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..c01f8d6054a
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space1.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do run { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +// { dg-options "-fabi-version=8 -Wabi -save-temps" }
> > > > +// { dg-final { scan-assembler "_Z1fPU8__seg_fsVi" } }
> > > > +
> > > > +int f (int volatile __seg_fs *a)
> > > > +{
> > > > +  return *a;
> > > > +}
> > > > +
> > > > +int main () {}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space2.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space2.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..862bbbdcdf2
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/abi/mangle-addr-space2.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do run { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +// { dg-options "-fabi-version=8 -Wabi -save-temps" }
> > > > +// { dg-final { scan-assembler "_Z1fIU8__seg_fsiEiPT_" } }
> > > > +
> > > > +template <class T>
> > > > +int f (T *p) { return *p; }
> > > > +int g (__seg_fs int *p) { return *p; }
> > > > +__seg_fs int *a;
> > > > +int main() { f(a); }
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-decl.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-decl.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..c04d2f497da
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-decl.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +__seg_fs char a, b, c;
> > > > +__seg_fs const int *p;
> > > > +static /* give internal linkage to the following anonymous struct */
> > > > +__seg_fs struct { int a; char b; } * __seg_gs q;
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ops.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ops.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..86c02d1e7f5
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ops.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +int __seg_fs * fs1;
> > > > +int __seg_fs * fs2;
> > > > +float __seg_gs * gs1;
> > > > +float __seg_gs * gs2;
> > > > +
> > > > +int
> > > > +main ()
> > > > +{
> > > > +  fs1 + fs2; // { dg-error "invalid operands of types .__seg_fs int.. and .__seg_fs int.. to binary .operator.." }
> > > > +  fs1 - fs2;
> > > > +  fs1 - gs2; // { dg-error "invalid operands of types .__seg_fs int.. and .__seg_gs float.. to binary .operator.." }
> > > > +  fs1 == fs2;
> > > > +  fs1 != gs2; // { dg-error "comparison between distinct pointer types .__seg_fs int.. and .__seg_gs float.. lacks a cast" }
> > > > +  fs1 = fs2;
> > > > +  fs1 = gs2; // { dg-error "cannot convert .__seg_gs float.. to .__seg_fs int.. in assignment" }
> > > > +  fs1 > fs2;
> > > > +  fs1 < gs2; // { dg-error "comparison between distinct pointer types .__seg_fs int.. and .__seg_gs float.. lacks a cast" }
> > > > +  return 0;
> > > > +}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ref.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ref.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..12d7975e560
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/ext/addr-space-ref.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +// { dg-prune-output "does not allow .register. storage class specifier" }
> > > > +int __seg_fs * outer_b;
> > > > +
> > > > +struct s {
> > > > +  __seg_fs int * ok;
> > > > +  __seg_gs int ko; // { dg-error ".__seg_gs. specified for structure field .ko." }
> > > > +};
> > > > +
> > > > +int register __seg_fs reg_fs; // { dg-error ".__seg_fs. combined with .register. qualifier for .reg_fs." }
> > > > +
> > > > +namespace ns_a
> > > > +{
> > > > +  int __seg_fs * inner_b;
> > > > +
> > > > +  template<typename T>
> > > > +  int f (T &a) { return a; }
> > > > +  int g (__seg_fs int a) { return a; } // { dg-error ".__seg_fs. specified for parameter .a." }
> > > > +  int h (__seg_fs int *a) { return *a; }
> > > > +}
> > > > +
> > > > +int
> > > > +main ()
> > > > +{
> > > > +  int register __seg_gs reg_gs; // { dg-error ".__seg_gs. combined with .register. qualifier for .reg_gs." }
> > > > +  static __seg_gs int static_gs;
> > > > +  __seg_fs int auto_fs; // { dg-error ".__seg_fs. specified for auto variable .auto_fs." }
> > > > +  __seg_fs int *pa = outer_b;
> > > > +  __seg_fs int& ra = *ns_a::inner_b;
> > > > +  return ns_a::f(ra) + ns_a::f(*pa);
> > > > +}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..ebb6316054a
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +
> > > > +__seg_fs struct foo; // { dg-error "address space can only be specified for objects and functions" }
> > > > +
> > > > +int
> > > > +main ()
> > > > +{
> > > > +	return 0;
> > > > +}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space1.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space1.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..2e8ee32a885
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space1.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +// { dg-options "-std=gnu++98" }
> > > > +
> > > > +int
> > > > +main ()
> > > > +{
> > > > +	struct foo {int a; char b[2];} structure;
> > > > +	structure = ((__seg_fs struct foo) {1 + 2, 'a', 0}); // { dg-error "compound literal qualified by address-space qualifier" }
> > > > +	return 0;
> > > > +}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space2.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space2.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..5b2c0f28078
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/parse/addr-space2.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +
> > > > +__seg_fs __seg_gs int *a; // { dg-error "conflicting named address spaces .__seg_fs vs __seg_gs." }
> > > > +
> > > > +int
> > > > +main ()
> > > > +{
> > > > +	return 0;
> > > > +}
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/template/spec-addr-space.C b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/template/spec-addr-space.C
> > > > new file mode 100644
> > > > index 00000000000..ae9f4de0e1f
> > > > --- /dev/null
> > > > +++ b/gcc/testsuite/g++.dg/template/spec-addr-space.C
> > > > @@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
> > > > +// { dg-do compile { target { i?86-*-* x86_64-*-* } } }
> > > > +
> > > > +template <class T>
> > > > +int f (T __seg_gs *p) { return *p; } // { dg-note "candidate: 'template<class T> int f.__seg_gs T\*." }
> > > > +				     // { dg-note "template argument deduction/substitution failed:" "" { target *-*-* } .-1 }
> > > > +__seg_fs int *a;
> > > > +int main() { f(a); } // { dg-error "no matching" }
> > > > +// { dg-note "types .__seg_gs T. and .__seg_fs int. have incompatible cv-qualifiers" "" { target *-*-* } .-1 }
> > > > diff --git a/gcc/tree.h b/gcc/tree.h
> > > > index 8844471e9a5..b7da4c5141a 100644
> > > > --- a/gcc/tree.h
> > > > +++ b/gcc/tree.h
> > > > @@ -2229,7 +2229,7 @@ extern tree vector_element_bits_tree (const_tree);
> > > >    /* Encode/decode the named memory support as part of the qualifier.  If more
> > > >       than 8 qualifiers are added, these macros need to be adjusted.  */
> > > > -#define ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE(NUM) ((NUM & 0xFF) << 8)
> > > > +#define ENCODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE(NUM) (((NUM) & 0xFF) << 8)
> > > >    #define DECODE_QUAL_ADDR_SPACE(X) (((X) >> 8) & 0xFF)
> > > >    /* Return all qualifiers except for the address space qualifiers.  */
> > > > 
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